Synthetic pesticides are used indiscriminately in insect pest management, which damages the ozone layer and causes resistance in target organisms as well as neurotoxicity, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity and mutagenesis in non-target organisms. Due to these negative consequences, research is now focused on using plant-based techniques to control insect pests. The maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), was tested in the laboratory to determine the insecticidal effects of two pure essential oil constituents, namely α-pinene and β-caryophyllene. These two terpenes were tested against S. zeamais for their toxic, ovipositional, developmental, and feeding inhibitory effects. When S. zeamais adults were fumigated for 24 and 48hrs, the median lethal concentrations (LC50) of α-pinene and β-caryophyllene were 0.412 and 0.305 μlcm-3 and 0.486 and 0.315 μlcm-3 air respectively. When S. zeamais adults were exposed for 24 and 48hrs in a contact toxicity assay, the LC50 values for α-pinene and β-caryophyllene were 0.388 and 0.256 μlcm-2 and 0.308 and 0.216 μlcm-2 area respectively. Adults exposed to sub-lethal concentrations of both terpenes experienced decreased acetylcholine esterase (AChE) enzyme activity. In S. zeamais, α-pinene and β-caryophyllene decreased oviposition, progeny output and eating. According to this study, α-pinene and β-caryophyllene can be used to make environmentally acceptable formulations and as a substitute for synthetic insecticides. 

The codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is a significant pest of pome fruit and walnut orchards worldwide and it is a particular problem in Bulgaria. Codling moth resistance to many insecticides has been recently detected in Bulgaria. Codling moth (CM) mating disruption with Ginko® dispensers was evaluated in four successive years from 2019 to 2022 as part of an anti-resistance strategy. In an isolated 3 ha apple orchard in the Plovdiv district of South-Central Bulgaria, close to the town of Perushtitsa, field tests were conducted for the control of the codling moth (CM), C. pomonella, via mating disruption (MD) using pheromone Ginko® dispensers. The pheromone dispensers were hung in the upper third of tree canopies with a density of 500 dispensers/ha before CM flight started. Dynamics of CM flights was monitored by pheromone traps installed in the trial plot and in a conventionally treated reference orchard. Two types of baits were used in the traps: PHEROCON® CM L2–codlemone lures and PHEROCON® CM DA COMBO-P + AA lures (Trécé Inc., USA) in the orchards for mating disruption. The PHEROCON® CM L2 lures were changed at 4-week intervals and PHEROCON® CM DA COMBO-P + AA lures at 8-week intervals. PHEROCON® VI Delta sticky traps baited with PHEROCON CM DA COMBO- P + AA lures and standard CM L2 caps were installed, for comparison, in a reference orchard located in the Plovdiv region. Fruit infestation was periodically assessed till the harvest time. In both years fruit damage remained lower till late July and increased slightly only in August. At harvest, fruit damage remained below 1%. It was obvious that mating disruption could be useful strategy for the control of codling moth in Bulgarian apple orchards, specifically when the plot is isolated from external sources of infestation and the population density of the pest is low. 

Locally available plants, Azadirachta indica, Citrus aurantifolia, Citrus aurantium and Tamarindus indica stems were infused in water and tested efficiency against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae) life stages. Preliminary phytochemical profiling of the plant infused water reveals the presence of phenolic compounds, tannins, flavonoid, cardiac glycosides and terpenoids. Tannins quantification revealed that C. aurantifolia had significantly more amounts than other plants. Citrus aurantium stem infused water (CASIW) caused more mortality to C. quinquefasciatus larvae and pupae. Furthermore, CASIW increased larval and pupal developmental period and reduced adult longevity. However, tested plants did not affect the morphology of the insect. Results suggested utilize this indigenous technique to minimize C. quinquefasciatus population.

The death of the three Aedes aegypti Linn larvae that were placed inside has been the subject of a study on the toxicity test of Derris elliptica (Benth). This study's objectives were to ascertain the effect of tuba root extract on the quantity of larval instars of three Aedes aegypti Linn, as well as to ascertain the concentration of tubal root extract that affected as larvaside by measuring Lethal Concentration (LC50). Experiment-based research is the type used. With seven concentrations and three replications over the course of 24 hrs, the research was carried out in partnership using a Randomized Complete Random Design (RAL) design. The probit analysis yields the LC50 result. The findings demonstrated that Derris eliptica extract, with an LC50 value of 125.99 ppm, had an impact on the death of instar larvae of three Ae. aegypti Linn. 

One of the main obstacles to feeding the world is the fungal leaf spot disease, which has a negative impact on plants' photosynthetic areas and significantly lowers crop quality and output. To manage fungi that pose a serious hazard to both humans and the environment, various chemical fungicides are utilized. The goal of the current study was to determine whether local isolates of three Trichoderma spp. (Trichoderma viride, Trichoderma harzianum, and Trichoderma asperellum) had any antagonistic effects in vitro against the pathogenic fungi Alternaria alternata, Fusarium solani, Fusarium oxysporum, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus sydowii, and Alternaria sp. Trichoderma viride showed the greatest growth inhibition against all of the tested pathogenic fungi, followed by Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma asperellum. It was shown that all three Trichoderma species strongly inhibited the mycelial growth of fungal pathogens. Compared to other isolated fungi, Trichoderma species inhibited Alternaria alternata mycelial growth more, whereas in Fusarium oxysporum least amount of mycelial growth inhibition was observed. These findings imply that Trichoderma species can function as an effective biocontrol agent against the fungi responsible for tomato leaf spot disease. 

Assassin bugs are terrestrial predators belonging to the family Reduviidae. Among the 24 subfamilies, harparctorinae is predominant and extensively investigated for biocontrol applications compared to the others subfamilies in Reduviidae. Being natural enemies of phytophagous insects, understanding the phylogeny of these predatory bugs can precise the selection of candidates to employ in insect pest management. In addition to morphological systematics, complete mitochondrial genome sequences provide great insights into the phylogeny for resolving evolutionary complexity. Complete mitochondrial genomes of four potential predatory harpactorinae and one outgroup triatominae were retrieved from NCBI GenBank database. Comparative analysis of the five mitogenomes and the nucleotide sequence between nad1 and nad2 genes were selected as the best option to distinguish. The nucleotide sequence between nad1- nad2 are found to be biased towards A and T similar to their respective complete mitogenomes. Tajima’s test of neutrality suggest that the evolutionary selection at nad1-nad2 was parallel to the complete mitogenome and showed positive and significant (p > 0.1) with high nucleotide diversity. Unequal evolutionary rate at nad1-nad2 between lineages observed in Tajima’s relative rate test and proved the nucleotide sequences of nad1-nad2 between species are highly variable. Comparing the phylogenetic trees generated using the complete mitogenomes and nad1-nad2 genes uncovered the correlation between the trees and having identical branches with varying bootstrap values. Conventionally the highly conserved protein-coding cox1 gene is used for molecular taxonomy whereas this study provides an additional and/or a possible alternative molecular marker for genetic comparative test (the nucleotide sequence between nad1-nad2) to understand the systematics and phylogeny of Reduviidae. The significant nucleotide diversity, high genetic distance and less genetic similarity of the sequence between nad1-nad2 genes among the species studied, Agriosphodrus dohrni, Rhynocoris fuscipes, Scipinia horrida, and Velinus nodipes undoubtedly propose the possible utilization of nad1-nad2 region as distinguishable molecular marker. 

One of the biggest worries for farmers is the spread of pathogens through the soil. These diseases are difficult to control because they are often tiny in size, buried in the soil, and frequently highly harmful even in small numbers. The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, to which the majority of countries are signatories, has restricted the use of residual pesticides for the management of soil-borne infections, and the demand for food that is free of blemishes is rising. However, it has become urgently necessary to find suitable substitutes as a result of the phase-out of methyl bromide, a significant chemical. After introducing plants that contain glucosinolate, which is digested to produce isothiocyanates (ITC) in the soil, biofumigation has emerged as a crucial procedure to control plant diseases. The existence of glucosinolates and the byproducts of their hydrolysis in soil illustrate the effectiveness and environmental impact of biofumigation. The most significant producers of bioactive chemicals are Brassica species, which makes them suitable for biofumigation applications. This review focuses on the concept, the effective application of biofumigants against soil-borne diseases, and offers several case examples to highlight upcoming difficulties for the concept's continued advancement. 

Cluster bean, Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (L.) Taub is an important annual legume crop of kharif season in arid and semi-arid regions of the Indian subcontinent. Six fungal antagonists and four bacterial antagonists were evaluated against Sclerotium rolfsii in vitro and in vivo condition to develop an effective management strategy for stem rot of cluster bean. During in vitro studies, native fungal and bacterial antagonists were inhibited the mycelial growth of pathogen. Among the fungal antagonists tested, the isolate-I4 (THM) showed the maximum growth inhibition of S. rolfsii up to 68.10 per cent. The bacterial antagonist Isolate-I3 (PFV) recorded the maximum inhibition zone of 13.33 mm and a minimum of 23.00 mm mycelial growth of S. rolfsii. Pot culture studies revealed that the combined application of T9-T. harzianum (THM) + P. fluorescens (PFV) (ST+ SA) through seed treatment and soil application recorded the minimum incidence of stem rot (4.66 per cent) and maximum plant height, number of pods/plant and pod length.The findings reported in the present study supported the applicability of isolate-I4 (THM) Isolate-I3 (PFV) as a possible alternative to fungicides for the control of root rot in black gram.