P.Chandramani, R.Rajendran1, P.Sivasubramanian2 and C.MuthiaBiophysical factors such as epicuticular wax,trichome density and leaf sheath thickness were analysed in the leaf sheath and laminae of plants treated with organic sources of nutrients. The results revealed that wax content and trichome density increased in plants as the age of the plant advanced. The difference in epicuticular wax content was significant among treatments. At 45 DAT, the treatments viz., FYM, biofertilizers, lignite fly ash and neem cake as basal and in splits and FYM plus neem cake as basal and in splits recorded maximum trichome density of 49.33, 49.67, 49.67 and 48.34 / cm2 leaf respectively. The same trend was also noticed on 60 DAT. On 60 DAT, the combination of FYM, biofertilizers and neem cake as basal was significantly superior in having maximum wax content (23.67 mg/g) which was on par with the combination of FYM, biofertilizers, lignite fly ash and neem cake as basal (22.00 mg / g). Treatments showed significant difference in leaf sheath thickness on 60 DAT. But the difference was not significant on 30 DAT and it varied from 0.24 to 0.35 mg/mm2 and the leaf sheath thickness was maximum in the combination of FYM, biofertilizers, lignite fly ash and neem cake in splits which recorded 0.58 mg/mm2.

A detailed study was conducted to investigate the influence of modified atmosphere packaging in cashew processing unit on the infestation of Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera:Tenebrionidae). Initial vacuum of 600/650mm Hg and final vacuum of 200 mm Hg filled with CO2 and N2 at 400/ 450mm Hg was used to evaluate their impact on the pest infestation at 0, 7, 35 and 45 days. Simultaneously observations like water activity, clumping, moisture content and levels of CO2 and N2 were evaluated. With in the week of experimentation the flexi packages showed high water activity. Clumping of cashew kernels was also observed and clumping was positively resulted with increase in initial vacuum. Reduction of CO2 content was closely related with higher water activity. In this study flushing 250mm of CO2 is suitable for kernels after borma. The results showed that the flushing 250mm of Co2 is not suitable for kernels after slight cooling and also indicate that cashew kernel can effectively be disinfested with high CO2 application in flexible units.

Adverse effect of moisture on some microbial insecticides such as Halt (Bacillus thuriengiensis var kurstaki, B.t.k.- 55000 S.U./mg), Biolep (B.t.k.- 32000 I.U. /mg), Vertimec (product of Streptomyces avermitilis - Avermectin1.8% w/v) and Bassina (formulation of Beauvaria bassiana-1 x 107 spore / ml) were studied against third instar larvae of mulberry silkworm, Bombyx mori L. under four levels of relative humidity ( 30%, 60%, 80% and 90% R.H.) and constant temperature (20 0 C ± 2 0 C). The biocide avermectin at 1000 ppm caused 96.66% and 95.00% mortality after 72 h of treatment at 80% and 90% relative humidity respectively. Whereas, halt and biolep caused 95.00%, 90.00% and 81.66%, 80.00% mortality after 72 h at the two respective humidies level. Through fungal formulation of B. bassiana proved to be less harmful against B. mori at 30% and 60% R.H. it inflicted 40 – 43.33% mortality at higher moisture level (>70% R.H.). Relative humidity was found to play a major role towards pathogenecity of all the tested microbials against B. mori. Increasing mortality was recorded with increase in days after treatment and maximum effect was noticed at 80% R.H. The overall effect followed the same trend for all the microbial insecticides, and the observed descending order was Avermectin > Halt > biolep > B. bassiana at four levels of relative humidity, respectively.

The influence of abiotic factors viz., temperature and relative humidity on the germination of urediospore of Hemileia vastatrix Berkeley & Broome, the coffee leaf rust pathogen was assessed under in-vitro conditions. The laboratory study was carried out to find the percentage germination of urediospores at different temperatures of 18, 20, 22, 24 and 26o C and at various relative humidity (RH) levels of 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90%. The results indicated that maximum germination of urediospore of the coffee rust fungus was observed at 24o C (48.60%) and 70% relative humidity (40.80%). The percentage germination of urediospore was affected when the temperature was decreased to 18o C (33.00%) and also increased to 26o C (36.20%). Spore germination was reduced to 31.60% at 50% relative humidity and 26.40% at 90% relative humidity levels set for the experiment.

The effect of neem cake, insecticides and Trichoderma viride on the infestation of stem weevil Pempherulus affinis (Faust) and incidence of dry root rot Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid of cotton was studied. Seed treatment (10 ml/kg) and spray drench with chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2.5 ml/lit (15, 30, 45, 60 days after sowing -DAS) combined with soil application of Trichoderma viride (2.5 kg/ha) on 20 DAS were found to be effective in registering the minimum infestation of stem weevil and root rot and maximum seed cotton yield.

The present investigation was conducted to evaluate Pseudomonas fluorescens and neem oil alongwith eight synthetic insecticides such as, Acephate 75 SP, Pseudomonas fluorescens, carbosulfan 25 DS, carbosulfan 25 EC, dimethoate 30 EC, ethofenprox 10 EC, imidacloprid 17.8 SL, monocrotophos 36 SL, neem oil and phosalone 35 EC as seed treatments at 10 ml or gm per kg of seeds against Amrasca devastans in cotton. In the experiment conducted at the research farm, imidacloprid, monocrotophos and P. fluorescens were found to be effective in reducing the leafhopper population by more than 50 per cent. Imidacloprid was found to be the most effective treatment recording the least population of 0.8/3 leaves and was followed by monocrotophos (1.23/3 leaves) which was on par with P. fluorescens (1.42/3 leaves). All other treatments were unable to reduce the leafhopper population by less than 50 per cent. In another On Farm Trial (OFT) conducted at Thirupanikarisalkulam, leafhopper population appeared 10 DAS and increased steadily. All the seed treatments were able to reduce the leafhopper population. Imidacloprid was found to be the most effective one recording the least mean population of leafhoppers (0.53 /3 leaves). Imidacloprid and monocrotophos were able to reduce the leafhopper population by 72.54 and 59.59 per cent respectively. Other treatments viz., acephate, P. fluorescens, phosalone, ethofenprox, dimethoate, neem oil, carbosulfan EC and carbosulfan DS resulted in less than 50 per cent reduction in leafhopper population compared to untreated check. Laboratory studies have shown that imidacloprid, monocrotophos and P. fluorescens improved germination and increased shoot length. Whereas neem oil had adverse effect on shoot length.

In the present study, aqueous extract of eight plants, namely Azadirachta indica A. Juss, Melia azedarach Linn., Lantana camara L. Moldenke., Cannabis sativa Linn., Nerium indicum Mill., Eucalyptus sp., Ricinus communis Linn. and Solanum nigrum Linn. were tested for antifeedant and toxic effects against Pieris brassicae (Linn.). The ethanol extract of four potential plants were further tested for their biological activity against the test insects. Aqueous extract of A. indica and M. azedarach repelled maximum number of larvae protected 94.0 percent and 89.2 per cent cabbage foliage, respectively. Aqueous extract of M. azedarach, N. indicum and A. indica showed higher mortality of larvae (19.6, 19.6 and 18.5%, respectively) while R. communis was the least toxic resulting in 8.9 per cent larval mortality. In case of ethanol extract, seed extract of M. azedarach protected 58.3 percent cabbage foliage while Eucalyptus sp. protected minimum cabbage foliage. The maximum protection to the cabbage foliage was provided at 5 per cent of M. azedarach (88.3%) and A. indica (82.5%). Ethanol extract of A. indica exhibited statistically higher larval mortality of 50.0 per cent and N. indicum the lowest mortality of 3.2 percent. In general, antifeedant and larval mortality was dose dependent.

The field efficacy of four plant extracts such as Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae), Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. (Verbenaceae), Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) and Eupatorium odoratum L. (Asteraceae) were evaluated against the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella L. and the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera Hub. larvae on cultivated cabbage. Treatments with 1% V. negundo and C. inerme extracts significantly reduced P. xylostella larval density, and the percentage of infested plants, proving to be more effective than a standard insecticide Challenger 10EC (cypermethrin). Treatment with L. camara extract (1%) reduced the percentage of H. armigera infested plants and the intensity of cabbage damage. However, the plant extracts did not effectively reduce H. armigera larval density, and cabbage damage. Phytotoxic effects on cabbage plants were not observed in any extract treatment. Two plant extracts, V. negundo and C. inerme at 1% significantly reduced the P. xylostella larval density and proved more effective than Challenger. The intensity of cabbage damaged caused by P. xylostella was significantly lower in L. camara and C. inerme than control and Challenger.

Field experiment was conducted at the Teaching and Research Farms of Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria during the rainy seasons of 2006. The objectives of the study were to determine the efficacy of six plant extracts (sweetsop, chilli pepper, garlic, ginger, neem and tobacco) against the insect pests of cowpea (variety IT86D-719) and their effects on yield. The experimental field was first ploughed, harrowed and ridged= before the commencement of the planting season. Twenty one experimental plots were demarcated and arranged into seven treatment plots. The size of each plot was 4m x 3m while interspaces between adjacent plot and blocks were 1m and 2m, respectively. The level of control was assessed by calculating percentage control of each treatment. Results of the experiments showed that all the plant extract treatments were significantly better than control treatments. Similarly, yield results corresponded positively with the effectiveness of the treatments. Results of the present finding therefore, suggest the use of all the tested plant extracts particularly tobacco, sweetsop and garlic as they have been found to be very promising biopesticides in the control of cowpea insect pests in Bauchi, Nigeria.

Ceratovacuna lanigera Zehnter is a serious pest of sugarcane in many parts of India including Maharashtra and Karnataka. In the light of recent increased interest in developing plant based secondary chemistry into products suitable for integrated pest management, the objective of the present study was to investigate the impact of Acacia concianna, Acorus calamus, Momordica charantia, and Annona squamosa on Ceratovacuna lanigera Zehnter under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Among the tested plants, A. concianna was found to be more effective than other plants. Two rounds of applications of four botanicals along with control were made and the incidence of aphid (Ceratovacuna lanigera Zehnter) on sugarcane was recorded. The results indicated that C.I. mortality was concentrations and exposure time dependent one. Among the four botanicals Acacia concianna was the most toxic botanical under laboratory condition. Similar impact was also recorded under field condition too.

The extracts of Impatiens noli-tangere, I. parviflora and I. glandulifera (Balsaminaceae) were evaluated for their effect on green peach aphid (Myzus perssicae), an important insect pest of many plants. All the extracts showed insecticidal and repellent activity. After 54 h of exposure, the most active extract was Impatiens parviflora with 99.7 and 90.0 % mortality at 0.5 and 0.1 % concentrations, respectively, and with highly percent repellency (90-100%) at different times. The extract of I. parviflora contained tryptophan (2.13 mg/g); 2- methoxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (0.02 mg/g), total flavone (7.64 mg/g) and total derivatives of caffeic acid (15.60 mg/g).

Both Ageratum conyzoides and Ageratum vulgaris have been used to manage pest throughout the world. Spodoptera litura (Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is one of the pests of field crops and has been developed resistance against most of the modern classes of synthetic pesticides worldwide. S. litura third and fifth instar larvae treated topically with 0.1µg of A. conyzoides and A. vulgaris were found to be significantly reduce total head protein after 24, 48 and 72 hours of treatment application over control. Similar trend was also observed when these plant extracts injected at 0.01 µl/ insect. Furthermore both A. conyzoides and A. vulgaris have similar impact on S. litura third and fourth instar larvae. These two plants can be used as botanical insecticide in pest management programme.

The antifungal activity of aqueous, petroleum ether, benzene, chloroform, methanol and ethanol extracts and alkaloid extract of Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. leaves (Mimosaceae) was evaluated for antifungal activity by poisoned food technique against Alternaria alternata a causal organism of brown spot of tobacco. Aqueous extract recorded highly significant antifungal activity at 24% concentration. Among different solvent extracts tested, methanol and ethanol extract recorded highly significant antifungal activity. Methanol extract was further subjected to fractionation guided by antifungal activity leading to the isolation of alkaloid extract, which was also recorded highly significant antifungal activity against the test fungus and the minimum inhibitory activity was recorded at 1000 ppm. The antifungal activity of alkaloid extract was compared with synthetic fungicides viz., blitox, captan, dithane M-45 and thiram at their recommended dosage of 2000 ppm indicating that the alkaloid extract was highly effective even at the dosage lesser than the synthetic fungicides.

Ten plant products were evaluated against Leucinodes orbonalis. They were: Azadirachta indica A. Juss. leaf extract @ 5.0 %, Calotropis gigantea. R. Br. leaf extract @ 5.0 %, Lantana camera Linn. leaf extract @ 5.0 %, neem cake extract @ 5.0 %, neem oil @ 2.0 %, Nimbecidine® @ 2 ml /lit, Pongamia glabra Linn. leaf extract @ 5.0 %, Prosopis juliflora Linn. leaf extract @ 5.0 %, Vitex negundo L. leaf extract @ 5.0%, and garlic (Allium sativum Linn.) extract @ 5.0 %. The standard check, carbaryl (Sevin 50 WP) @ 0.1% and an untreated check were included. The plant products, neem oil, Nimbecidine, neem cake extract and C. gigantea were able to reduce the shoot damage by more than 50 percent during Kharif; Consistent effect was observed only for neem oil (57.29 %) and Nimbecidine (52.67 %) in Rabi crop. The plant products were moderately effective compared to the standard check, carbaryl. The plant products were moderately effective against fruit damage too. Among the plant products, neem oil was the best treatment both in Kharif (60.20 %) and Rabi (59.91 %) followed by Nimbecidine (57.42 %). Neem cake extract (51.97%) and C. gigantea (51.34 %) were also quite effective in Kharif crop reducing fruit damage by more than 50 percent. Botanicals are moderate in their efficacy in reducing the fruit borer damage in brinjal.

Cipadessa baccifera Miq., Melia dubia (Cav.) (Meliaceae); Clausena dentata (Rutaceae) and Dodonaea angustifolia (Sapindaceae) are common medicinal plants found in Western Ghats and are used traditionally for various purposes. The petroleum ether, chloroform, hexane, acetone and water extracts of the leaves were investigated for their ovicidal property against Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera : Noctuidae). The different extracts of the test plants differed significantly in their efficacy. Among the four plants tested for ovicidal activity, Clausena dentata reduced the egg hatchability and proved to be highly ovicidal compared to others. Among the age of eggs, it was clear that the early stage of the eggs namely 24 h old eggs, to be highly susceptible to all the treatments.

As a part of a programme on possible utilization of indigenous plant extracts in pest management practices, acetone extracts of eight plant species collected in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India, were tested for their larvicidal activity against the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti L. The buds of Tail Pepper, Piper cubeba L, Capers Capparis spinosa L and Indian Black Berry, Syzygium cumini L. the florals of Indian Oleander, Nerium indicum (Mill.), Indian Cork tree, Millingtonia hortensis L. and Royal Poinciana, Delonix regia L., leaves of Wood Apple, Limonia acidissima L. and Physic Nut, Jatropha curcas L were collected locally, shade dried and extracted in the soxhelet apparatus. Six of the 8 plants studied exhibited toxicity against the 3rd instar larvae. The extracts of D. regia and L. acidissima were most active and showed toxicity up to 100 %. The dry bud extractions of S. cumini and J. curcas also showed significant larval mortality. Acetone extract of P. cubeba and C. spinosa were less active, and needed higher concentrations to obtain 50% toxicity. Hence, these active plant extracts may be used in control of the A. aegypti causing dengue fever and many other diseases.

Certain phytoextracts and plant oils were treated in vitro for their antifungal efficacy against the growth of Cercospora moricola Cooke, the incitant of leaf spot of Mulberry (Morus alba L.). Highest mycelial growth inhibition (72.59%) was recorded in Eucalyptus globules with 10% concentration. The next best plant extracts are, Oscimum sanctum (49.08%), Phyllanthus emblica (46.75%), Aloe barbedensis (45.75%), Allium sativum L. (41.08%) and Azadirachta indica (35.25%). Plant oils viz., Madhuca indica oil (3%) Cymbopogon citratus oil (0.05%) and neem oil (3%) also inhibited the mycelial growth of the fungus with 75.73%, 73.22% and 24.44% respectively, when compared to control. All the tested phytoextracts showed more or less inhibitory effect on mycelial growth on dry weight basis. Growth inhibition ranged from 49.24% to 60.12%. Significantly, the highest inhibition was recorded in Eucalyptus globules (10%) with 60.12%, followed by Aloe barbedensis (57.37%),Oscimum sanctum (56.40%), Phyllanthus emblica (54.26%), Allium sativum L.(51.68%) and Azadirachta indica (50.81%). In case of oils, neem oil (3%) showed highest per cent inhibition (40.44%), when compared to Madhuca indica oil (3%) with 40.23% and Cymbopogon citratus – (0.05%) with 30.62%.

Field tests were conducted to evaluate the effect of Spodoptera litura (Fab.) nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPVS) alone and in combination with endosulfan and neemarin (neem seed kernel extract) against S. litura in cabbage. Treatment with NPV-S (500 LE/ha) + Endosulfan (625 ml/ha) was better in reducing the larval population and increasing yield than other treatments. However, considering cost benefit ratio (CBR), treatment with endosulfan (1250 ml/ha) alone was found to be the most beneficial as compared with other treatments.

Bioefficacy of entomopathogenic nematode belongs to the genus Steinernema sp. were tested against mealworm Tenebrio mollitor with 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 juveniles (IJs)/30 mealworm larvae. LC50 value was 105 IJs/ml for mealyworm. The invasion efficiency was lower as the density of nematodes increased. At highest density (250 IJs/ml), the efficiency of invasion of nematodes was 24.5 % whereas at lowest density (50 IJs/ml) the invasion efficiency reached 33%. For LT50 calculation, 30 larvae were put in contact with the nematode (density 250 IJs/ml) during 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10 hours. Mortality was recorded 48 hours after the contact periods, and LT50 value was obtained at 7.7 hours. After two weeks, nematode population could reach ca. 40,000 IJs/larva, 35,000 IJs/pupa and 29,000 IJs/imago. When applied using density 50 IJs/ml against Cylas formicarius, the nematode population grew up to ca. 4000 IJs/larva, 3600 IJs/pupa and 3400 IJs/imago with invasion efficiency of 10%, 8% and 7% respectively. A series of nematode density 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0 x 104 IJs were poured on the soil surface in the plastic container where sweet potato tuber were buried. The tubers were previously and artificially infested by five pairs of weevil. Although in general the difference between treatments is not significant, the result showed that high mortality (>70%) of larva, pupa and adult of C. formicarius was observed in each tuber. It is concluded that the isolated nematode was not difficult to propagate in vivo, and their mobility to search and kill the weevil seemed promising as bioinsecticide.

The present study was undertaken to evaluate various liquid growth media viz sabouraud dextrose, sabouraud sucrose, sabouraud maltose supplemented with yeast extract, potato dextrose and coconut water derived coniospores and blastospores on sorghum stem borer Chilo partellus ( Swinhoe)Among the media, the conidia harvested from sabouraud maltose yeast extract broth ( SMYB),potato dextrose broth and coconut water were found to be pathogenic to all the larval instars of C.partellus. However, blastospores derived from none of the media did cause mortality

Bacterial antagonists isolated from coffee rhizosphere soils were evaluated at different concentrations alone and in combination against Hemileia vastatrix, the causal organism of leaf rust disease of coffee under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Under in vitro conditions, the rhizobacterium, Bacillus subtilis inhibited the growth of urediospores to an extent of 68.20% at a test dosage of 1 x 109 cfu ml-1 followed by Pseudomonas fluorescens to an extent of 64.50% at the same test dose. Combination of P. fluorescens and B. subtilis at 1 x 108 cfu ml-1 inhibited the growth of urediospores of the CLR pathogen to an extent of 61.46%. The natural inhibition of germination in the check treatment was 37.79%. Among fungicides used for comparison, the percent inhibition over control was maximum in Bayleton (89.03%) followed by Bordeaux mixture (80.64%). Under in vivo conditions, during the period of season-I, maximum reduction in disease index was recorded in treatment with Bayleton (71.84%) followed by Bordeaux mixture (53.37%). Among the bioagents, B. subtilis recorded maximum disease reduction (42.98%) at a test dosage of 1 x 109 cfu ml-1 followed by P. fluorescens (33.65 %) at the same test dose. P. fluorescens and B. subtilis in combination at 1 x 108 cfu ml-1 reduced the disease incidence to an extent of 26.45%. The season-II (post-monsoon period) has recorded less disease reduction compared to season-I (pre-monsoon period).

Experiments were carried in pot culture and field to analyse the effect of induced resistance on hopper pests of rice.The biological traits viz.,oviposition period ,adult emergence, growth index, adult longevity were studied based on standard procedures on plants imposed with treatments including neem cake, FYM , Azospirillum, phosphobacterium , silicate solublising bacteria and lignite fly ash. The combination of FYM, three biofertilizers, lignite fly ash and neem cake applied in splits significantly reduced the incidence GLH (59.13%),WBPH (63.12%) and BPH(74.545%) as compared to NPK applied as inorganic form. There has been a significant difference existed among treatments in oviposition period of BPH and WBPH and it ranged from 5.67 to 8.70 and 5.10 to 7.00 days respectively. The nymphal period was lengthened in the treatments viz., FYM, biofertilizers and neem cake as basal and in splits and FYM, biofertilizers, lignite fly ash and neem cake as basal and in splits and it was 15.01, 15.23, 15.87 and 15.92 days respectively as against 11.74 days in NPK applied plants. Longevity of BPH and WBPH varied from 5.00 to 7.15 and 3.70 to 6.15 days respectively.The presence of higher phenol (3.5 and 2.85 mg/g in stem and leaf), tannin (5.65 and 4.50 mg/g in stem and leaf) and silica (6.20 and 6.46 mg/g in stem and leaf) in the effective treatments imparted induced resistance through antibiosis mechanism to rice pests which was evidently proved in the biological traits tested.

A field trial was conducted at Regional Agricultural Research Station, Lam, Guntur during 2002-03 to evaluate first generation Bt hybrids released in India for reaction to pest complex of cotton under unprotected conditions. The results revealed that transgenic Bt cotton does not afford any protection to sucking pests of cotton and their tolerance or resistance is mainly dependent on the morphological or genetic base. Helicoverpa armigera incidence was completely absent in RCH 144 Bt as no square damage was recorded followed by lower incidence in RCH 2 Bt(3.3%) and RCH 20 Bt(5.95%). Where as non Bt versions of RCH 2(7.53%), RCH 20(11.95%) and RCH 144(9.0%) recorded higher damage and significantly differed from their respective Bt counter parts. Pink bollworm per cent green boll damage was also lowest in Bt cotton hybrids compared to their non Bt versions.

The effect of salicylic acid in inducing systemic resistance in bhendi against powdery mildew caused by Erysiphe cichoracearum DC was investigated by the application of salicylic acid (1mM) to induce production of defense related enzymes and chemicals in plants when it was applied as pre-inoculation, post-inoculation, salicylic acid alone, pathogen alone and water control. The results revealed that earlier and increased activities of phenyl alanine ammonia lyase, was observed in salicylic acid pretreated bhendi plants challenge inoculated with E.cichoracearum. Higher accumulation of phenolics was also noticed in plants pretreated with salicylic acid and able to enhance the resistance against invasion of E. cichoracearum in bhendi.